Malnutrition and Cognitive Development: How Early Nutrition Shapes Educational Outcomes – Evidence from Global Studies

 

image source: child rights and you 

Introduction

Malnutrition is a condition where body is either undernourished or over nourished resulting in stunting, wasting, obesity, and diet-related diseases. It not only affects the education outcomes for children but also decreases the quality of human capital of a country. When we look at data nearly 149 million children under the age of 5 are suffering from stunted growth. In India, this percentage is 35.5% (NFHS-5). Studies have highlighted the negative impact of malnutrition on child's cognitive development and academic excellence. Hence Proper nutrition is essential for brain development, memory retention, and concentration as these factors are key to educational performance. Developing countries like India are more often suffering from marginal malnutrition (hidden hunger) which causes lower Cognitive Scores, Poor School Performance, and Micronutrient Deficiencies. Thus this study will examine the Link between Child Nutrition and Educational Performance by analysing available literature and secondary data.

KEYWORDS

Malnutrition, Cognitive Development, Educational Outcomes, Early Childhood Nutrition

Literature Review

Nutrient deficiency and environmental stimulation like Social engagement and Physical activity influence brain development in children which correlates with educational performance. According to research, these factors have Additive, Interacting, and Mediating Effects. Additive Effects explain both nutrition and stimulation factors are important and improving either one can lead to better development, but improving both is the best outcome. While Interacting Effects explains Good nutrition alone is not enough children also need a rich learning environment for proper brain development. Mediating Effects explains undernutrition not only directly affects the brain but also reduces opportunities for learning and social interaction. Through these effects, it is clear that both nutrition and stimulation factors influence Educational Performance. Hence Proper nutrition at the right time is crucial for brain development. While the brain has some ability to recover from early malnutrition, the combination of good nutrition and a stimulating environment is necessary for the best possible outcomes. How well a child performs in education is directly linked with the building of quality human capital which

enhances the productivity and economic development of a country. Through a study data has been collected from a group of Korean orphans adopted by middle-class Americans and through this data it has been found that those children who are undernourished before the age of 2 years have lower IQ scores compared to those who had not been undernourished in the same age group. Another interesting factor is that children who were adopted before the age group of 2 years had generally higher IQ scores than those who were adopted after the age group of 2 years which indicates that it is better to address malnutrition earlier. Another investigation highlights some new findings during Famine conditions in Holland after WWII where strict food rations were imposed. Children born during this era did not have low IQ scores because they received adequate nutrition and health care afterwards but these children in adult life had increased risk of schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder. Another study done in Barbados showed that adults who have suffered from moderate to severe malnutrition in the first year of life had low attention span and reduction in cognitive development with lower school achievement. In Guatemala pregnant women and their children up to 7 years were provided milk-based high protein and energy drinks with Micronutrients and children who received these drinks had higher cognitive scores at 4-5 ages and higher scores on tests of numeracy (math), knowledge, vocabulary, and reading achievement at 11–18 years of age and most of these effects were only found among individuals who began supplementation before the age of 2 or 3 years. In Bangladesh and Indonesia, it was found that multiple micronutrient supplementation given during pregnancy and postpartum had better motor and cognitive development, especially for undernourished mothers. Similarly, in Chile, infants with low haemoglobin concentration at age 6 months showed improved recognition at age 10 years if they had been fed iron-fortified formula (compared to low-iron formula) during infancy. In contrast, children with high haemoglobin concentration at age 6 months performed better in cognitive tasks at age 10 years. Some trials show that if nutrition supplement is provided to mothers during pregnancy and children throughout the age of 2 years then it is beneficial for optimal cognitive development of children. Iron deficiency is associated with poor mental and motor development resulting in poor cognition and school achievement. Some studies have also shown that children who had been anaemic before 2 years of age show deficits in cognition and school achievement from 4 to 19 years of age. In Nepal, it was found that mothers who received iron, folic acid, and vitamin A performed better than those mothers who had received vitamin A alone. Zink and Vitamin B like thiamine are important for brain development if children lack these vitamins, particularly thiamine they often show neurological symptoms. In middle income countries, thiamine deficiency is more prevalent than in wealthier countries. Despite reduction in stunting hunger is still a big issue. In 2023, between 713 and 757 million people were undernourished which is about more than 152 million more people than in 2019. The first 1000 days of life are crucial as they provide opportunities for rescuing neurocognitive deficits. Young Lives research study in Ethiopia, India, Peru, Cambodia, and Vietnam found that there is improvement in the academic performance of those children who overcome stunted growth compared to those who remained stunted between 12 months to 8 years.

This figure illustrates how nutrition and stimulation work together to support brain development and educational performance. Both are essential, as good nutrition enhances brain function, while a rich learning environment fosters cognitive growth.

Diet quality was demonstrated to be a positive predictor of improved cognitive outcomes in children. Some evidence from research suggests that supplementation of animal protein like cow’s milk in a child’s diet can help prevent undernutrition and improve cognition. Undernutrition and obesity during the first 60 months of postnatal life affect the cognitive neurodevelopmental trajectories of children later in life. Weight and height need to be monitored even beyond 24 months of life to enable early recognition of growth retardation/deviations and to allow appropriate and timely interventions to address their negative neurodevelopmental and cognitive impacts.

Future Discussion

This study reveals a strong relationship between malnutrition and impaired cognitive development leading to poor educational performance. Korean Orphan study and Barbados research show that children who were malnourished before the age of 2 have attention deficit and reduced school achievement. Hence it is advised to make policies that will cater to the needs of pregnant mothers and infants. Peru and Malawi studies show that children who experience catch growth still lag behind children who are never stunted. Dutch famine study shows that the first 1000 days of Prenatal and early postnatal nutrition significantly influence brain development hence intervention before the age of 2-3 gives better cognitive outcomes. But alone nutritious diet and supplements are not sufficient environmental stimulation like physical and mental activity like playing and reading produce the best result.

The first 1000 days are very important for new-borns. If they are malnutrition in this period it can disrupt brain development, leading to lifelong deficits in learning and productivity. Nutritional interventions (fortified foods, micronutrient supplements) are vital, but they must be incorporated with Cognitive stimulation (play, schooling) for optimal recovery. Maternal nutrition and breastfeeding are effective. India’s Poshan and Aganwadi programs are good for addressing nutrition deficiency. But hidden hunger requires urgent attention as it undermines the real potential of the child.

Essay on Economics of Homeschooling

 

Introduction

Homeschooling, which was once a distinct educational option, is now widely accepted. Statistical and demographic information about homeschooling is not widely available worldwide due to a variety of factors. Globally, there are differences in the legality of homeschooling. Homeschooling is permitted in several countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK, Mexico, South Africa, the US, and others; however, each nation has its own laws and regulations. But countries like Germany, Sweden, Turkey, and others have strong laws against homeschooling. Homeschooling is becoming more prevalent in the US, where between 2 and 4 million pupils are receiving their education at home (Kunzman R., Gaither M., and Shepherd G.). Homeschooling is becoming popular in India also, according to education experts, especially in cities like Bengaluru and Pune, where the population is said to be financially stable, artistic, and cosmopolitan. In India, the majority of homeschooling communities are concentrated in the cities of Mumbai, Pune, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad. 

image: creative commons 

Homeschooling is not a brand-new concept; it was already practised before the law requiring compulsory education. Homeschooling is a form of education where the learning environment is the home. Either parent taught their children at home, or those parents paid tutors or educators for that purpose. Unschooling and homeschooling are frequently used interchangeably. According to unschooling parents, who do not set up a curriculum for their kids, they are not homeschoolers because they give their kids the freedom to pursue their own interests and learn how they want to, but homeschooling parents do adhere to a curriculum for their kids, according to the blog "Freedom to Learn" by Peter Gray, a research professor of psychology at Boston College. Unschooling is viewed as a form of homeschooling in official statistics, which do not differentiate between the two. In India, a parent's educational background, financial independence, and availability of time are crucial factors in determining how well a child does in homeschooling. According to the National Household Education Poll (NHES) 2007, a survey based on random sampling, the majority of homeschoolers in the US live in two-parent households (89%), and slightly more than half (54%) of those households have just one working parent. Half of homeschooling parents report having at least a bachelor's degree, indicating a considerably higher level of education. The main reasons behind homeschooling are concern about the school environment, the desire to impart moral and religious training, dissatisfaction with academic instruction, and the child's physical and mental health concerns.

Because of the government's position on homeschooling and because of high internet speeds and affordable data packages, homeschooling has become a more viable alternative for Indian parents. According to HSLDA, between 500 and 1000 children are homeschooled in India, where homeschooling is legal. Homeschoolers in India can enrol for the NIOS to take the grade 10 and grade 12 exams, or they can take tests from renowned boards of education as "Private Candidates Registered with A School" or, in a few states/metros/cities, through "The British Council." The National Institute of Open Schooling, the International General Certificate of Secondary Education, and the CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) all offer curricula for parents who desire to certify their children.

Estimates of Homeschool Students

                       

New Zealand, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States are the countries where Homeschooling is most common for children and teenagers. This is a rough estimate meant to give a general overview of Homeschool students around the world. In the US, where between 2 and 4 million students receive their education at home, Homeschooling is on the rise (Kunzman R., Gaither M., Homeschooling, and Shepherd G.).According to ADCS (Association of Child Services Directors) estimates, there are 81,200 registered homeschooled children in England as of October 2021. According to HSLDA and SBS News report 21,437 kids in Australia were registered for home schooling in 2019.   According to Homeschooling | Education Counts , there were 7,749 pupils being homeschooled in New Zealand as of July 1, 2021. According to the HSLDA, 500-1000 children are homeschooled in India; however, no government organisations regulate homeschooling. 

Key Words 

Homeschooling, Public Goods, Private Goods, Economic Efficiency, Opportunity Cost.

Main Findings

When physical and mental health concerns are excluded, then homeschooling becomes a private education and a private good. Private goods are those that are exclusive and competitive by nature. As a result, their availability will be reduced for those who cannot purchase them. As was previously stated, homeschooling requires financial stability, the luxury of time, and educated parents. The standard of education that children receive from homeschooling depends on resources, knowledge, and parental motivation. According to research, taxpayers don't pay anything for the vast majority of homeschoolers, and families who choose this method of instruction don't rely on publicly financed educational resources. Homeschooling fosters prejudice in the educational field. When there is a significant income gap, the state cannot completely rely on homeschooling. Homeschooling as a popular alternative may lead to educational inequity, with the poor children whose parents did not have privilege ultimately suffering as a result of that discrepancy. One more disadvantage of homeschooling is that parents can use it as a pretext to send their kids to unregistered institutions that have fervently religious curricula. In one study (Knox et al., 2014), medical experts collected instances of serious child abuse that had been reported to their various medical institutions in Virginia, Texas, Wisconsin, Utah, and Washington State. They discovered that 47% of the school-age children had been expelled under the pretext of "homeschooling," and 29% of them had not been permitted to attend school. Some studies show that homeschoolers perform well in reading and writing but not in arithmetic. UNESCO recognises education as a public good. Public education is a public good. In economics, public goods are considered to be collective consumption goods, and they are distinguished by their non-rivalry and non-excludability characteristics. Because social benefits outweigh private benefits and costs, public resources cannot be distributed effectively under a market-based system. To avoid the issue of free riders, tax revenue from the government is frequently used to fund public goods. Being a public good, public education has a positive externality.Well-educated parents are advantageous to all students. These parents have time and money to invest in enhancing the institution of learning. They can attend PTA events and interact with other parents who are not as well-off in terms of finances and education as they are which will enable the school to operate more effectively. Homeschooling parents can make financial contributions and form a strong group to expose ineffective educators. When parents decide to homeschool their children rather than pull them out of public schools, these are the benefits that will follow. When middle-class families abandon public schools in the US, public schools suffer, as they leave public education and stop supporting the institution by participating in political oversight (George Shepherd, 2015).

In economics, efficiency refers to the ability to achieve a goal with little or no waste of resources; however, because education is a special good, we can judge homeschooling efficiency by including opportunity cost, which is how many underprivileged children are not receiving good quality education as a result of homeschooling. Due to the lack of scientific research on the efficiency of homeschooling at the macro level, it is not appropriate to state strongly that there is a trade-off between efficiency and equity in this scenario because, by judging the success of some homeschoolers, we cannot make them representative of the entire homeschooling community.

In comparison to public schools, homeschoolers recognise that there is a higher likelihood of social isolation when a child is homeschooled because formal education offers more opportunities for social engagement. Because of this, homeschoolers participate in a variety of official and unofficial groups. They meet in person and share information in formal timetable groups. Meeting places for informal sports teams include houses and playgrounds. Homeschooling mothers collaborate and share knowledge while also renting out classrooms for different homeschooled children. They routinely use libraries and the internet for information, occasionally hiring higher-level tutors and specialists. According to Chatham-Carpenter (1994), Ensign (1997), and Ray (2009a), homeschooling is likely to change the student's social circle and promote more interactions between different age groups than it does with same-age ones. There is a substantial correlation between the mother's educational level and the child's achievement score among the 36 homeschoolers in Medlin's (1994) study. Mothers are reported to be mostly in charge of home education across all demographics. Mothers typically shoulder the majority of the workload associated with homeschooling, both within individual families and within the larger homeschooling support system, according to Stevens (2001). According to Lois's (2006, 2009, 2010) ethnographies of homeschooling reasons and practices, homeschool moms face significant role pressure, which can lead to emotional burnout. 

When parents choose to teach their children at home, it takes a significant amount of effort and commitment on their part. Those with resources can benefit from homeschooling. Since most students are no longer exclusively dependent on their teachers for learning, the Internet and EdTech companies have significantly changed the educational landscape. Nevertheless, some kids still lack the tools necessary to study well at home. Because she was unable to attend online classes due to financial constraints, a 15-year-old girl in Kerala took her own life. She was a bright student but did not have a smartphone, and as a result, due to fear and depression, she took her life. There are numerous homeschooling success stories, and if you look closely at their backgrounds, you'll see that most of them come from quite wealthy background and have access to plenty of resources. Finding a solution to the issue of delivering high-quality education will benefit the most disadvantaged children and will also inspire homeschoolers. Otherwise, homeschooling will widen the gap between rich and poor pupils and be harmful to society as a whole. Making education more exclusive may benefit some kids, but it would surely harm others. Apple (2000a), Lubienski (2000).

The Way Forward

I discovered while conducting my research that a number of publications emphasised the demand for a more rigorous examination of the recent discoveries. After a more thorough investigation of the economic implications of homeschooling, it will become clear whether or not it is advantageous from a macroeconomic point of view. Our knowledge about homeschooling is mostly based on anecdotal information (Houston, 1999). Everyone appears to agree that the homeschooling movement is likely to have a significant impact beyond what happens in certain households and with particular children (Apple, 2000a; Bates, 1991; Riegel, 2001).

Role of Green Spaces in Enhancing Youth Mental Well-being in Indian Cities: A Policy Perspective

image source: environbuzz.

Abstract

India’s urban population is rapidly growing and it is projected by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs that it will reach 600 million by 2031. With the growing urban population mental health problems will also rise due to busy city lives, job stress, loneliness, and financial issues. Data shows that in India as cities expand green spaces like parks, gardens, and forests shrink. However, the positive externalities of green spaces are undeniable. Youth mental health is the top priority of a welfare state and in India almost 11 percent of adults suffer from poor mental health according to National Mental Health Survey (2016). Stress, anxiety, bipolar and addiction are common issues that need immediate action. Hence promoting green spaces can be one way to support youth mental health. Research finds that regular contact with nature can help lower stress, improve mood, and encourage physical activity. Hence this study will address how urban parks and green spaces can improve the mental health of youth. Creating Urban Green Equity Zones (UGEZ) in special areas for underserved communities can be beneficial. The study will highlight how better planning and policies can make cities healthier and more supportive of the mental well-being of young people. 

KEYWORDS

Keywords: Youth Mental Health, Urban Green Spaces, Urban Planning and Policy.

Introduction

The 2011 census reveals that 31 percent of the Indian Population lives in cities. By 2030 the figure is estimated to be about 40 percent. Hence there is a serious threat to youth mental health in being conventionally urbanized due to reduced green spaces and fast-paced urban lifestyle. Urban Youth witnesses a negative externality of conventional urbanization. Stress, Anxiety, loneliness, depression, and emotional burnout are the common symptoms. All these symptoms lead to social exclusion and decreased productivity. However Green spaces like Parks, Tree-lined streets, Urban forests, Green roofs, and Community gardens not only helps in improving air quality but also are ecologically and economically viable in the long run. They have positive externality effects on population. A regular sense of connectivity with nature reduces stress levels, increases attention span, and improves overall productivity. We humans are social creatures and regular social interaction is essential for our mental wellbeing. But the fast-paced life of the urban city promotes isolation thus green spaces like parks, community garden are very important for overall mental health. About 11% of adults in India are suffering from mental disorders. Young people between 15 – 30 years old are the most vulnerable group hence the importance of green spaces in urban areas is crucial for the protection of the demographic dividend of the country. Urban green spaces can act as a building block for improved mental health performance. Hence by implementing a green infrastructure strategy and maintaining accessible, safe, and inclusive green areas in cities can provide a low-cost yet effective way to improve the emotional and psychological health of youth. Urban green equity zones are one such approach as it will cater to the needs of underprivileged communities in urban cities. Hence this research's primary aim is to explore the relationship between green spaces and youth mental health in Indian cities by accessing and analysing existing literature. Through this research, priority is given to how green spaces and natural environment contribute to stress reduction, emotional regulation, and social wellbeing among youth. The study will also offer policy suggestions for building cities prioritizing infrastructure and mental health. With urbanization prioritizing green spaces is not an option but a priority.

Literature Review

Mental disorders are a global disease burden which not only affects the life of young people but also hinders their path to reach full potential. Hence it is one of the priorities of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The World Health Organization (WHO) recognises the importance of green spaces as an instrument for promoting physical, mental and social health. Research done by Ester Amoly and her team shows that green spaces help in improving mental health by reducing emotional and behavioural difficulties in children specially for those who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Other studies suggest that exposure to green spaces improves cognitive function, restores attention and working memory. A longitudinal study done on Denmark people reveals that children who lived near more green spaces have 55 percent lower chances of developing mental health problems as they grew older. Green spaces not only help in better cognitive development but also help in stress reduction. Ulrich’s Psycho-evolutionary Model (1983) and Kaplan’s Attention Restoration Theory (1995) reveals that the natural environment improves psychological recovery. They help in reducing mental fatigue and promote relaxation. Empirical study done by Berman, Jonides, and Kaplan (2008) supports these arguments. Green spaces Lower cortisol levels (stress hormone). Areas which have higher green spaces have experienced better sleep quality. Apart from these benefits, visual exposure to greenery also showed decreased physiological markers of stress, such as blood pressure and heart rate (Gascon et al., 2018). Green spaces promote social cohesion which leads to improved mental health. A green space like parks and community gardens foster social interaction, reduce loneliness and strengthens human bonds. They improve perceived safety and belonging which are essential roots for good mental health. Scientific study reveals that Green spaces like Tree-lined streets help to mitigate noise pollution in technical terminology it refers to green mufflers. Plants, especially trees and shrubs absorb sound waves and reduce noise pollution. Urban green spaces mitigate air pollution which has a positive impact on respiratory organs. They naturally filter air by absorbing pollutants and improve air quality. All these positive externalities of urban green spaces have a positive effect on youth mental health. And its benefit is far reaching across different demographics; children benefit from improved cognitive development and reduced ADHD symptoms. Youth experienced improved mental, physical and social health. Study shows low income populations and women show greater mental health improvements due to increased access to a safe and green environment. According to research findings of Mitchell and Popham (2008) green spaces can reduce health inequalities particularly in terms of mental well-being. Another research done by Nutsford, Pearson, and Kingham (2013) says that access to a green environment is associated with better mental health outcomes especially for underprivileged youth.

 Future Discussion

The finding of the study reveals that urban green spaces play a crucial role in improving youth mental health. With continued urbanization and a fast-paced urban lifestyle promotion of green spaces is a need. The evidence from global studies indicates that exposure to nature can act as a preventative and therapeutic tool for physical, mental, and social health. One of the most important insights from the literature is that green spaces directly help reduce psychological stress and enhance emotional stability. For India where the For India where the population is young urban spaces should designed in such a way that promotes green spaces. Developing Youth-Centric Green Zones, eco-parks, community gardens, and interactive nature trails near schools, colleges, and residential areas can be beneficial. Another major step towards green spaces is to Revive and Protect Existing Green Spaces. Tree Plantation Drives & Urban Forestry is another major step towards promoting youth mental well-being. Green spaces have multiple positive externalities on both youth and the environment. Creating Urban Green Equity Zones (UGEZ) is one aspect of reducing health inequality. Hence beyond aesthetics, Urban Green Equity Zones (UGEZ) has far-reaching benefits. They not only offer sustainability but also help in the economic development of a country. There is overwhelming evidence in favour of green spaces. Policymakers and urban planners must consider the positive externality associated with green space while doing costbenefit analyses. The small steps towards green spaces can transform the city landscape into a healthier and more supportive environment for youth.

 Conclusion

In conclusion, this research highlights the importance of green urban spaces in promoting the mental well-being of youth. With urbanization and mental health challenges integrating nature with growth is not a luxury but a necessity. The benefits of green spaces are beyond aesthetics they provide psychological benefits, encourage social interaction, and reduce environmental stressors. India is rich in demographic dividend hence to achieve desired goals it is important to raise productivity and without good mental health it is not possible. The implementation of urban green policies such as urban green quality zones can help build healthier, more resilient urban populations. Thus the research urges policymakers and urban planners to work collaboratively to promote green spaces. Future research should focus on region-specific studies by collecting primary data to understand the usage patterns, perceptions, and barriers to green space access among different youth demographics.