Abstract
There is a big debate regarding a clear and concise definition of Terrorism. Internationally there is hardly a clear consensus regarding Legal Definition of Terrorism. The definition of Terrorism varies from country to country, region to region. But it involves the unlawful use of threats, force, and violence by individuals or groups against people and property. The aim is to intimidate or coerce a government or civilians to achieve extreme political or social objectives. It can be seen as an Ideology with elements of violent acts, brutality against Civil Society caused due to wrong religious beliefs and threats. Terrorism is the illegitimate, premeditated violence or threat of violence by subnational groups against persons of property with the intent to coerce a government by installing fear amongst the populace (United States House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence (2002). Behind Terrorism there are extreme and radical political, religious and ideological beliefs. The main aim of this study is to explore how countries and international bodies define terrorism legally and what are the psychological impacts of terrorism on societies.
Introduction
Terrorism has become a major issue due to various economic and political reasons. It can take many forms, but it is always rooted from extreme political, religious and ideological beliefs. Terrorism creates anxiety and fear within societies and countries, causing severe problems on multiple levels.
For an overall economy terrorism is devastating. Historical terrorist attacks such as 9/11, Air India Flight Bombing (1985) show us how dangerous and destructive terrorism can be. Terrorism is often linked to radicalism, an ideology that relies on force and violence to achieve its goals. Several studies have shown that terrorist attacks increase CO2 emissions. And this increased co2 emissions directly or indirectly affects the ecological diversity including livestock, and overall biodiversity.
Moreover, terrorism reduces tourist attraction to affected countries and makes investors pessimistic about a nation's economy, leading to a decline in Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) and Foreign Portfolio Investments (FPIs). For decades, terrorism has been a major problem at both national and international levels, causing severe damage to economies. It damages critical infrastructure, including computer systems, power plants, nuclear facilities, chemical factories, dams, bridges, pipelines, and water supply systems. This destruction lowers household and business confidence, resulting in reduced economic activity. This leads us to determine how to define terrorism in a more scientific and systematic manner. Different ideologies and motivations drive terrorism, but the damage it causes to society is vast. As mentioned earlier Terrorism can take various forms, each with distinct motivations, tactics, and objectives. It can be State-Sponsored Terrorism, Religious Terrorism, Ethno-Nationalist and Separatist Terrorism, Anarchist Terrorism, Environmental or Eco-Terrorism, Cyber terrorism, Narco-Terrorism, Bioterrorism, or Lone-Wolf Terrorism. Each type of terrorism presents different challenges for preventing, responding to, and mitigating attacks. Understanding these differences is key to defining Terrorism. The main aim of this study is to identify how terrorism is legally defined by different countries and international bodies and what are the psychological impacts of terrorism on societies.
How UN Defines Terrorism
The UN is the world's largest organization, consisting of 193 member countries. It was established after World War II with the primary purpose of protecting human rights and maintaining global peace and security. Organizations like the UN play a very significant role to combat terrorism. However The United Nations has struggled to create a universally accepted definition of terrorism. Although it recognizes terrorism as a global issue needing international cooperation, the UN has avoided directly defining it. Instead, it has used indirect methods to address the issue. It has adopted many resolutions for combating terrorism. The UN General Assembly Resolution 51/210 on “Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism” in the year 1996 proposed a non-binding definition of terrorism by defining terrorism, as
“The criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them”.
The 9/11 terrorist attack in the USA drew global leaders' attention to the issue of terrorism. Following this, the UN adopted a resolution to criminalize terrorism. In 2004, the UN Security Council, through Resolution 1566, aimed to define a terrorist act as:
“Criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offenses within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature.”
The UN has left the task of defining terrorism to future conventions, considering it a complex issue that requires more discussion and agreement. The UN believes that defining terrorism is essential but challenging, and needs more time and consensus to address properly. The lack of a clear definition of terrorism has made it hard to fight terrorism worldwide.
How USA defines Terrorism:
The major terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, caused serious damage to the U.S. economy. The 9/11 terrorist attacks on the USA were a series of coordinated attacks carried out by the extremist group al-Qaeda on September 11, 2001. The attacks caused massive destruction and loss of life, Nearly 3,000 people were killed. The attacks resulted in significant economic impacts, including billions of dollars in damages, a stock market downturn, and a major impact on the airline and insurance industries. This shows how deadly Terrorism can become to the overall economy.
The United States defines terrorism in Title 22 of the U.S. Code as “politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets in a clandestine manner, with the intention to influence an audience”.
The United States House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence (2002) defines Terrorism as: "Terrorism is the illegitimate, premeditated violence or threat of violence by subnational groups against persons of property with the intent to coerce a government by installing fear amongst the populace."
The United State Department (1984) defines terrorism as: "Terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience."
FBI (1999): "Terrorism is defined as the unlawful use, or threatened use, of force or violence by a group or individual... committed against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives."
How European Union defines Terrorism
The European Union is an international organization dedicated to economic integration and the promotion of human and economic freedoms. In 2004, the European Council adopted the Declaration on Combating Terrorism, which outlined fifty-seven measures. This was followed in 2005 by the Strategy for the Fight Against Terrorism, titled "Prevention, Protection, Disruption, and Response." In 2017, the European Parliament and European Council adopted the Directive on Combating Terrorism, with a key focus on providing assistance to victims of terrorism. The introductory articles of this directive define a "terrorist group" as a structured group of two or more individuals, established over a prolonged period and operating in an organized manner to commit terrorism-related offenses. A "structured group" is characterized as an intentionally organized entity, not formed by chance, with the purpose of committing a crime.
Previously, the EU lacked clear legislation defining terrorism, and only a few Member States had partial and inconsistent provisions. Consequently, European officials initiated efforts to establish binding regulations applicable to all Member States. The EU has attempted to provide a definition of terrorism through its categorization.
The European Union defines terrorism as actions by an individual or group aimed at: 1) seriously intimidating a population, 2) unduly compelling a government or an international organization to perform or abstain from performing any act, or 3) seriously destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic, or social structures of a country or an international organization (European Union, 2021).
How India defines Terrorism
Terrorism has a longstanding history in India, where both global and national terrorist groups are active, causing extensive damage to national property, killing thousands of innocent civilians, and significantly hindering developmental activities in the affected regions. Consequently, internal security is compromised due to the actions of religious and communal extremists, Jihadi terrorists, and Naxalites. The Naxalite insurgency has already spread to India's neighboring country, Nepal. In India, states such as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal are severely impacted by Naxalite violence. Today, the Naxalites are more organized than they were 50 years ago.India defines terrorism as “acts of violence carried out by a group of individuals that endanger human lives and threaten fundamental freedoms, with effects that are not confined to a single state”.
Psychological impacts of terrorism on societies
Terrorism has a serious psychological impact on societies. People who witness terrorist attacks are at high risk for stress and behavioral changes. These attacks cause significant physical and psychological effects, altering a society's sense of control, values, thoughts, attitudes, and assumptions, leading to reduced economic freedom and disrupting daily life (Zeidner, 2006).Exposure to terrorism can cause severe psychological symptoms such as anger, rejection, lack of focus, sleep disturbances, and depression. Additionally, feelings of sadness, worry, anxiety, and increased smoking and alcohol consumption are common (Nandi et al., 2005). People may feel insecure and lose their sense of trust and safety (Waters, 2002). Immediately after terrorist acts, there is a high incidence of PTSD, anxiety, and depression symptoms (Brewin et al., 2000; Shalev and Freedman, 2005). PTSD is the most common disorder after a traumatic event. PTSD symptoms fall into three categories: recurrent symptoms like nightmares and flashbacks, avoidance symptoms like steering clear of places or events related to the trauma or feeling emotionally numb, and over-arousal symptoms like difficulty concentrating or sleeping and an exaggerated startle response. Studies show that PTSD, often accompanied by other behavioral and health issues, is the most likely outcome after terrorist incidents (Galea, Nandi, and Vlahov, 2005). Additionally, two-thirds of those directly affected by terrorism experience some level of psychological impairment (Beaton and Murphy, 2002.Terrorist attacks increase negative stereotypes towards Muslims. These lead to communal violence in society, ultimately causing social disorder. It also reduces tolerance towards members of external groups.Terrorism can cause trauma in individuals who have lost loved ones, potentially leading to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a long-term psychological condition. Additionally, it affects the general population by diminishing the sense of security and causing the loss of property and loved ones.
Individuals who have experienced trauma often show stress reactions for several weeks, which can be categorized into four types (Mathewson, 2004):
Emotional reactions: Temporary fear, shock, denial, sadness, anger, resentment, guilt, shame, desperation, and a sense of separation from important people in their lives.
Cognitive reactions: Confusion, indecision, anxiety, disorientation, difficulty remembering and concentrating, a shortened attention span, self-blame, and intrusive memories.
Physical reactions: Tension, nausea, physical pain, irritability, drowsiness, insomnia, rapid breathing, sweating, being easily startled, and experiencing panic attacks.
Interpersonal reactions: Distrust, irritability, withdrawal, feelings of abandonment or rejection, being judgmental, and becoming over-controlling or distant.
Sometimes People who are falsely accused of terrorism face severe and multifaceted impacts. Being falsely accused of terrorism can lead to severe emotional distress, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD, along with constant fear and paranoia. Public accusations often result in shame, humiliation, and damage to one's self-esteem. Socially, individuals may face stigmatization, ostracization, and isolation, while their reputation suffers irreparably. Economically, false accusations can lead to job loss, financial strain from legal fees, and hindered career opportunities. Legally, individuals may endure prolonged battles to clear their name, loss of civil liberties, and a lasting criminal record. Family relationships are strained, impacting children and placing heavy burdens on support networks. Community and societal impacts include distrust in the legal system, increased racial and ethnic tensions, and mobilization for advocacy and policy changes.This ultimately disturbs social order within society. This causes less trust within the system .
Conclusion:
Terrorism has been a major domestic and international problem, causing serious damage to the overall economy. Although different countries define terrorism differently, there are commonalities among these definitions. This study shows that there is hardly a clear consensus on the definition of terrorism among countries. There is no universal definition provided by the UN, and each country has its own way of defining terrorism. From the mentioned definitions, we can infer that terrorism is a violent act organized by an individual or group to cause tension and threats within society, aiming to fulfill their extreme radical political , religious and ideological beliefs.
Terrorism has a severe psychological impact on society, causing fear, tension, hopelessness, and reduced economic freedom. The serious psychological effects of terrorism demand greater prevention measures when formulating policies to counter terrorism. Sometimes individuals are falsely accused of terrorism, causing significant damage to their lives. There have been many cases where individuals were framed as terrorists but were innocent. The impacts of false accusations of terrorism are profound and long-lasting.
There is a need to universally define terrorism to reduce the falsification of terrorism charges against people and mitigate the psychological impact on society. Further studies require scientific and empirical evidence and research to study terrorism more effectively.
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